SOCIAL CHANGE IN BRITISH CITIES
Category: Land + PeopleThere is no doubt that among other urban problems in Britain it is the inner city areas that have attracted most attention. It is the inner city which provides a good many of the most urgent problems and which affords an arena for some of the sharpest clashes of interest. The tensions between commercial and residential interests are most marked in the old areas close to the heart of the city. Traditionally, much concern with inner areas focused on the inadequacies of housing.
The 1974 Rent Act, which was designed in part to give security of tenure to those in furnished accommodation, has not led to any major improvement, for while it undoubtedly helped those confronted by unscrupulous landlords it did nothing to increase the overall supply of housing. In inner city areas, especially in London, some property owners are renting at extremely high levels to large companies or to a small population of very wealthy tenants. More commonly, landlords are turning their flats and houses into ‘bed and breakfast’ establishments. And some of them actually benefit from homelessness, for in the inner boroughs local councils have been forced to make increasing use of ‘bed and breakfast’ accommodation as shelter for the homeless!
The ‘slum problem’, the subject of debate and legislation from the midnineteenth century on, has been seen principally as a problem of decaying tenements and villas in the inner city. Although special Acts of Parliament gave to the Scottish cities (whose problems were perhaps the most acute) as early as the 1860s the power to undertake slum clearance programmes, the problem was not really tackled in a thoroughgoing way until the Housing Act of 1930. From the passing of that Act until the outbreak of World War there was considerable progress in attacking the old problem of the slums. Before the 1930 Housing Act it was assumed that if the housing stock were sufficiently increased then there would be a general movement of families into progressively better housing. The legislation of 1930 was specific recognition that such a process did not work and in the post-war years the lesson was to be learned again. The capacity to create new housing or to improve basically sound but rather decrepit property has never matched the demand for decent housing. The enthusiasm for policies of large-scale clearance soon brought vigorous protests and complaints from inhabitants of designated areas and from a growing number of environmental pressure groups. Clearance - or ‘urban renewal’ as it has been called - has often had sorry effects on those who inhabited the old working- class districts of the inner city. Much has been written about the destruction of a ‘community’ and a good deal of it romanticises working- class life, but it remains true that the bulldozers have destroyed much more than bricks and mortar. Some of the areas razed have had populations which were stable over many years, even over generations, and this stability, along with proximity and poverty, had produced in those who lived there a strong sense of attachment to the place and more importantly to the social networks of which they were a part. The mutuality of the oppressed gave rise to patterns of support and reciprocal aid. Life was hard and insecure but it was made supportable by social and moral frameworks which were shared and by sanctions, codes and controls which were exercised by those who had to live by them.
The indictments of housing policy, and in particular the criticisms of separating housing from general economic and industrial policy, show a similarity, from the earliest studies of pre-war housing estates to the most recent official report on the inner areas of Liverpool, Birmingham and London. The 1964 Housing Act put the stress on improvement rather than demolition. The effects of this legislation have so far been disappointing. The use of grants, for instance, has had only a marginal effect upon the quality of the housing stock.
The problem of the inner city areas has been compounded of many elements over the past two or three decades; of awful slums and milder forms of dilapidation in the housing stock; of private individuals and institutions unable or unwilling to rehabitate or rebuild; of public authorities pressing forward with sometimes ill-considered and destructive schemes. But it is made up too of changes in demographic patterns, of shifts of occupational structure and processes of migration.
At the same time it is evident that in the inner areas of many major cities there are concentrations of deprivation, neighbourhoods where many are unemployed or impoverished, where overcrowding is rife, housing conditions deplorable and educational provision inadequate. With the example of American cities before them this has led some commentators to argue that just as the outward migration of the relatively wealthy has left a poor black population to inhabit the inner areas there, so similar patterns of migration and changes in occupational structure have turned British inner cities into traps for the poor.
The process of suburbanization is rapidly developing and around most of the towns new housing areas have opened up to meet the demands of the rising population. Small towns in the neighbourhood of the cities have been surrounded by large estates of housing. The move out of the city, as in North America, has been selective, consisting for the most part of the relatively wealthy and young. But the search for a better, freer residential environment has brought its own problems. The advantages of suburban living have to be weighed against the difficulties and expenses of commuting and as the roads and railways have become more congested, so the balance sheet has been reappraised. For some middle-class families the city areas once again have begun to look attractive. Property dealers were quick to see the potential for profit and there soon sprang up a flourishing trade in houses which had been improved and modernized by the property agents or were sold as suitable for such a grant-aided facelift by an enterprising owner. Buildings with the slightest pretensions to architectural merit or interest became ‘houses of character’ to be disposed of to middle- class buyers. With a little capital, a grant for rewiring, replumbing and structural repairs, many Victorian houses could be upgraded and provide better accommodation than that offered by the average new houses. North Kensington and districts which were ‘improved’ by property companies have changed from ‘low rent’ to ‘high rent’ areas. Cheap ‘flats’ have become luxury ‘apartments’. The effect has been to reduce even further the prospects of decent housing for the poorer sectors of the population in the central city area.
But gentrification is also a product of municipal housing programmes. With the encouragement of central government and under pressure from the conservationist lobbies, the local authorities began their own schemes of restoration and renovation. In many cases rehabilitation still meant that poor families with little prospect of council housing or owner-occupation were forced into already overcrowded low-rent areas or at best were rehoused in public housing estates, typically far from the central city areas with their familiar social and economic relations and institutions. Edinburgh provides an example of just such a process. Its famous Royal Mile has been subject to a good deal of restoration and some rebuilding which in recent years has produced good housing, vastly better than much of the squalid property which was there. But for those who once lived in the street rehabilitation has brought a flat in a suburban housing estate, while a noticeably wealthier population has moved into this desirably central location. The Royal Mile is a tourist attraction, its buildings and its inhabitants are seen by almost every visitor. The ‘improvement’ in its character has meant not just expensive restoration and rebuilding but a consciously engineered change in its population. It has effectively been ‘gentrified’.
The processes prevail which maintain and even heighten the segregation of different classes and status groups in Britain. Much of the contemporary political conflict in the city is about access to the housing property and to a say in its control. The actions of rent-strikers, of squatters and the many forms of community action can be seen in this light. Pressing the claims of an ethnic minority for access to housing or other resources, challenging the right of councils to change specific patterns of land-use or to raise rent levels-these and many other protests witness a new level of consciousness.
Based on: Work, Urbanism and Inequality. UK Society Today.