THE TWILIGHT OF BRITISH IMPERIALISM
Category: PoliticsIt is possible to divide the story of imperial expansion into two main periods, the first ending and the second beginning about 1874.
In the later period, when Britain’s industrial and commercial supremacy and her predominance as a world power were seriously challenged, the imperial idea became a driving force in British politics. Poets, philosophers, historians and statesmen presented the idea of imperial expansion into a “Greater Britain” as the nations’s manifest destiny. The Conservative party, in office for twenty-three years in the period 1874-1905, adopted imperialism as its basic policy and the Liberal party also had its group of ardent imperialists. Strategy, competition for investment opportunities, particularly in Africa and China, were among the motives which impelled Britain to compete with other Powers for colonies.
The main period of acquisition occurred during the wars with France, 1793-1815. Bases acquired included Trinidad, Tobago, St. Lucia, Dominica, Martinique, Guadeloupe and the Reunion Islands in the West Incjies, portion of Dutch Guiana in South America, Minorca, Malta and the Ionian Islands in the Mediterranean, Heligoland in the North Sea commanding the Baltic trade, Cape Colony in South Africa, the islands of Mauritius and Seychelles in the Indian Ocean, Ceylon and the East Indies and numerous French trading posts in India. Britain also established an interest in the Malay Peninsula and in the last year of the war acquired Ascension Island in the Atlantic.
By 1815 the tiny, scattered possessions left to Britain after the successful revolt of the thirteen American colonies (1775-1783) had already been expanded into a fairy substantial empire. Expansion continued throughout the next hundred years and by 1920, when the process of growth ended in the acquisition of a number of former German and Turkish possessions, the British Empire represented the greatest imperial state in territory, population and resources in the history of mankind.
The Empire carried within itself the seeds of its own decline. Settlement colonies, that is colonies formed by the settlement of British emigrants, gained self-government during the nineteenth century and, by 1931, obtained full equality with Britain, transforming part of the Empire into the British Commonwealth. As this process extended to British dependencies after World War II it became clear that the Empire was gradually being transformed into a largely informal association called simply “The Commonwealth”. At first it was possible to interpret this development as constructive rather than destructive, as a source of power rather than weakness, particularly when the Dominions rallied to Britain’s cause during World War II. By the 1960s, however, it became apparent that the growth of the Commonwealth represented a decline in British power.
In 1839 the idea of empire was simple: it meant control. Although there was considerable variety in the forms of government throughout the Empire and a number of Departments of State (Treasury, Board of Trade, Foreign Office and Army) shared imperial responsibilities with the Department of Colonies, the basic trend since 1783 had been to centralize control as much as possible in Downing Street. No colony had been given control of its internal affairs by 1839.
By this time there were three main kinds of imperial possessions: India, an exceptional case, ruled jointly until 1858 by the British Government, and the East India Company; settlement colonies in which the population was mainly British or British-European in origin; and the dependencies acquired by treaty, conquest or international agreement, in which a British minority ruled a majority of native people or former slaves. All were subject to legislation passed by the Imperial Parliament; but only the last two groups were the primary responsibility of the Colonial Office.
The Commonwealth idea developed first in the settlement colonies where it was predictable that the colonists would resist control and demand self-governing institutions similar to the constitutional forms of government in the mother country.
Since 1919 the British Empire declined into a number of scattered and comparatively small dependencies. The Commonwealth of twenty states including Britain linked in a mostly informal association with each other replaces most of the Old Empire.
The process of change from Empire to Commonwealth represents a decline in British power.
There has been a tendency in bourgeois Britain to regard the Edwardian era as a Golden age, but it is now clear that the British Empire, in spite of appearances, was past her zenith when Queen Victoria died. Britain’s commercial and industrial rivals were slowly overtaking her, particularly in the United States. In the earlier part of Queen Victoria’s reign, Britain had been not only the world’s workshop and factory but also its banker, carrier, clearing-house, insurance broker and shipbuilder. Until 1870, she had produced half of the world’s coal, but in 1900 her output was surpassed by that of the United States. America, Germany and Japan were the new rivals in mass production. And by the end of the Edwardian era the progress of scientific development and the industry of her competitors were seriously to undermine Britain’s position as the world’s workshop, and even her claim to be mistress of the seas was soon to be doubtful, while the danger of her land’s naval forces in the face of growing military and maritime expansion in Germany was to be apparent.
The twilight of British imperialism set in. When Britain started out on the imperialist road, the world was open before her. There were no competitors. Colonies were seized in all parts of the globe with modem weapons against bows and arrows and spears. The ground was cleared for investment. The “Opium War” in China, the Zulu war, the Abyssinian war, the bombardment of Alexandria, the Boer war, wars in India and Afghanistan. These wars opened up the way for British imperialism, for lucrative British investments. The situation is entirely different today. Firstly, a large part of the world has been removed from capitalist exploitation altogether. Secondly, in the colonies a decisively new factor is operating. The colonial peoples everywhere, in different manners, are in revolt against imperialist gangsterism and are determined to achieve independence for their respective countries and freedom to live their own lives and develop their own culture. Guns, tanks and bombs are used against them. But the revolt can never be suppressed. Now that they have risen to their feet the colonial people will never be forced to their knees again.
Based on: The Tyrants’ Might is Passing by W. Gallacher; 1900. The End of an Era by J. Montgomery and Triumph and Tribulation by L. Evans and Ph. J. Fledger